In a small number of women, normal pregnancy is not possible because of some anatomical or physiological condition. In 87% of these cases the uterine tubes are incapable of transporting the zygote to the uterus or allowing sperm cells to reach the oocyte. In vitro fertilization and embryo transfer have made pregnancy possible in hundreds of such women since 1978. In vitro fertilization involves removal of secondary oocytes from a women, placing the oocytes into a petri dish, and adding sperm cells to the dish, allowing fertilization and early development to occur in vitro, which means “in glass”. Embryo transfer involves the removal of the developing embryo from the petri dish and introduction of the embryo into uterus of a recipient female. For in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer to be accomplished, a woman is first injected with an LH-Like substance, which causes more than one follicle to ovulate at a time. Just before the follicles rupture, the secondary oocytes are surgically removed from the ovary. The success rate of embryo transfer varies from clinic to, with the age of the embryo at the time of transfer, and with the age of the patient.

Cancer of the cervix is relatively common in females and fortunately can be detected and treated. A Papanicolaou (Pap), named for the Greek-American physician, George Papanicolaou, (1883-1962) smear is a diagnostic test used to determine if a woman is suffering from cancer of the uterine cervix. A smear of epithelial cells is taken from the area of the cervix by inserting a swab through the vagina. Cells from the wall of the vagina are also included in the smear. The smear is placed on a glass slide and stained. The cells are then examined microscopically to determine whether some of them show signs of being cancerous. Early development of cervical cancer, the cells of the cervix change in a characteristic way. Cells that are cancerous appear to be less mature than the characteristic epithelial cells of the cervix or vaginal wall. Cervix is a lower part of the uterus extending to the vagina and Cancer a malignant neoplasm, or tumor.